ZYGO Zygon® 0591-2385 1467-9744 10.1111/j.1467-9744.2007.00854.x Cross‐Species Chimeras: Exploring a Possible Christian Perspective Cobbe Neville 02 09 2007 42 3 10.1111/zygo.2007.42.issue-3 599 628

Various entities that combine material from humans and other animals at either the cellular or subcellular level have attracted growing public interest. I explore the controversy by considering both the scientific rationale behind creating various entities that have prompted the greatest public concern and possible ethical implications. I note a number of potentially relevant biblical passages and reflect on the imago Dei and considerations of telos in order to prompt wider discussion regarding how Christians might respond to such emerging bioethical issues.

 chimera cloning embryo ethics humanity imago Dei (image of God) nuclear transfer research telos (end) welfare Aquinas, Thomas. [c. 1265‐‐72] 2006. Summa Theologiae: Volume 13 (1a. 90‐‐102)—Man Made to Gods Image. Trans. and ed. EdmundHill. Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press. Archer, Gleason L.1982. Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties. Grand Rapids, Mich. : Zondervan. Athanasius [c. 319] 1996. On the Incarnation. Crestwood , N.Y. : St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. Augustin [c. 413‐‐26] 1994. “City of God: Book XII, Chapter 23  .” In Augustin: City of God, Christian Doctrine, trans. MarcusDods, ed. PhilipSchaff, 241–42. Peabody , Mass. : Hendrickson. Augustin [c. 400‐‐416] 1994. “On the Trinity: Book XIV, Chapter 4  .” In Augustin: On the Holy Trinity, Doctrinal Treatises, Moral Treatises, trans. Arthur WestHaddan and William G. TShedd, ed. Philip Schaff, 185–86. Peabody , Mass. : Hendrickson. Balaban, Evan.1997. “Changes in multiple brain regions underlie species differences in a complex, congenital behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.  94: 2001–06. Balaban, Evan, M. A.Teillet, and N.Le Douarin1988. “Application of the quail‐chick chimera system to the study of brain development and behavior. Science  241: 1339–42. Barrientos, Antoni, LesleyKenyon, and Carlos TMoraes1998. “Human Xenomitochondrial Cybrids. Cellular models of mitochondrial complex I deficiency. Journal of Biological Chemistry  273:14210–17. Barrientos, Antoni, StephanMüller, RunuDev, et al.2000. “Cytochrome c Oxidase Assembly in Primates Is Sensitive to Small Evolutionary Variations in Amino Acid Sequence. Molecular Biology and Evolution  17:1508–19. Barritt, J. A., M.Kokot, JacquesCohen, et al.2002. “Quantification of human ooplasmic mitochondria. Reproductive Biomedicine Online  4:243–47. Barth, Karl.1958. Church Dogmatics III.1: The Doctrine of Creation. Trans. J. W.Edwards, O.Bussey, and H.Knight; ed. G. W.Bromiley and T. F.Torrance Edinburgh : T&T Clark. Barth, Karl.1960. Church Dogmatics III.2: The Doctrine of Creation. Trans. H.Knight, G. WBromiley, J. K. S.Reid, and R. H.Fuller; ed. G. W.Bromiley and T.F.Torrance Edinburgh : T&T Clark. Beaujean, Nathalie, GeraldineHartshorne, JenniferCavilla, et al.2004a. “Non‐conservation of mammalian preimplantation methylation dynamics. Current Biology  14:R266–67. Beaujean, Nathalie, Jane E.Taylor, MichelleMcGarry, et al.2004b. “The effect of interspecific oocytes on demethylation of sperm DNA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.  101:7636–40. Beaujean, Nathalie, JaneTaylor, JohnGardner, et al.2004c. “Effect of Limited DNA Methylation Reprogramming in the Normal Sheep Embryo on Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer. Biology of Reproduction  71:185–93. Berg, Thomas.2006. “Human Brain Cells in Animal Brains: Philosophical and Moral Considerations. The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly  6:89–107. Blelloch, Robert, ZhongdeWang, AlexMeissner, et al.2006. “Reprogramming Efficiency Following Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Is Influenced by the Differentiation and Methylation State of the Donor Nucleus. Stem Cells  24: 2007–13. Boiani, Michelle, LucaGentile, Vivian VGambles, et al.2005. “Variable Reprogramming of the Pluripotent Stem Cell Marker Oct4 in Mouse Clones: Distinct Developmental Potentials in Different Culture Environments. Stem Cells  23: 1089–1104. Bortvin, Alex, KevinEggan, HelenSkaletsky, et al.2003. “Incomplete reactivation of Oct4‐related genes in mouse embryos cloned from somatic nuclei. Development  130:1673–80. Bourc'his, D., D.Le Bourhis, D.Patin, et al.2001. “Delayed and incomplete reprogramming of chromosome methylation patterns in bovine cloned embryos. Current Biology  11:1542–46. Bruce, Donald.2007. “Over‐egging the clones. New Scientist  193 (2587): 17. Byrne, James A., StinaSimonsson, Patrick S.Western, and John B.Gurdon. 2003. “Nuclei of Adult Mammalian Somatic Cells Are Directly Reprogrammed to oct‐4 Stem Cell Gene Expression by Amphibian Oocytes. Current Biology  13:1206–13. Cáceres, Mario, JoelLachuer, Matthew A.Zapala, et al.2003. “Elevated gene expression levels distinguish human from non‐human primate brains. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.  100:13030–35. Calvin, John. [1536] 1989. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Trans. HenryBeveridge. Grand Rapids , Mich. : Wm. B. Eerdmans. Calvin, John. [1554] 1993. Commentaries on the First Book of Moses Called Genesis. Vol. 1. Trans. JohnKingGrandRapids, Mich. : Baker. Case‐Winters, Anna.2004. “Rethinking the Image of God. Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science  39:813–26. Chang, Kyung H., Jeong M.Lim, Sung K.Kang, et al.2003. “Blastocyst formation, karyotype, and mitochondrial DNA of interspecies embryos derived from nuclear transfer of human cord fibroblasts into enucleated bovine oocytes. Fertility and Sterility  80:1380–87. Check, Erika.2005. “Where now for stem cell clonersNature  438: 1058–59. Chen, Da‐Yuan, Duan‐ChengWen, Ya‐PingZhang, et al.2002. “Interspecies Implantation and Mitochondria Fate of Panda‐‐Rabbit Cloned Embryos. Biology of Reproduction  67:637–42. Chen, Tao, Yan‐LingZhang, YanJiang, et al.2006. “Interspecies Nuclear Transfer Reveals that Demethylation of Specific Repetitive Sequences Is Determined by Recipient Ooplasm but Not by Donor Intrinsic Property in Cloned Embryos. Molecular Reproduction and Development  73:313–17. Chen, Ying, Zhi XuHe, AilanLiu, et al.2003. “Embryonic stem cells generated by nuclear transfer of human somatic nuclei into rabbit oocytes. Cell Research  13:251–63. Chimpanzee Consortium.2005. “Initial sequence of the chimpanzee genome and comparison with the human genome. Nature  437:69–87. Chrysostom, John. [c. 390‐‐98] 1994. “Homily II  .” In Chrysostom: Homilies on the Gospel of St. John and the Epistle to the Hebrews, trans. FredericGardiner, ed. PhilipSchaff, 370–75. Peabody , Mass. : Hendrickson. Chung, Young Gie, SarayuRatnam, J. RichardChaillet, and Keith E.Latham2003. “Abnormal Regulation of DNA Methyltransferase Expression in Cloned Mouse Embryos. Biology of Reproduction  69:146–53. Cibelli, Jose.2007. “A Decade of Cloning Mystique. Science  316:990–92. Cobbe, Neville.2006. “Why the apparent haste to clone humans?rdquo; Journal of Medical Ethics  32:298–302. Cyranoski, David.2006. “Blow follows blow for stem‐cell work. Nature  439:8. Cyranoski, David.2007. “Simple switch turns cells embryonic. Nature  447:618–19. Daniels, R., V. J.Hall, A. J.French, et al.2001. “Comparison of Gene Transcription in Cloned Bovine Embryos Produced by Different Nuclear Transfer Techniques. Molecular Reproduction and Development  60:281–88. De Pomerai, David.2002. “Human Use of Non‐Human Animals: A Biologists View  .” In Bioethics for Scientists, ed. John A.Bryant, Linda BaggottLa Velle, and JohnSearle, 85–99. Chichester , England : John Wiley and Sons. Dean, Wendy, FátimaSantos, MiodragStojkovic, et al.2001. “Conservation of methylation reprogramming in mammalian development: Aberrant reprogramming in cloned embryos. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.  98:13734–38. Dearman, J. Andrew.2002. “Theophany, Anthropomorphism, and the Imago Dei: Some Observations About the Incarnation in the Light of the Old Testament.” In The Incarnation: An Interdisciplinary Symposium on the Incarnation of the Son of God, ed. Stephen TDavis, DanielKendall, and GeraldO'Collins, 31–46. Oxford : Oxford Univ. Press. Dennis, Carina.2006. “Cloning: Mining the secrets of the egg. Nature  439:652–55. Department of Health.2000. “Recommendation 6  . Stem Cell Research: Medical Progress with Responsibility. London : Department of Health. Department of Health.2006. “Embryos combining human and non‐human material  . Review of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act. Proposals for Revised Legislation. London : The Stationery Office. Department of Health.2007. “Prohibitions in connection with genetic material not of human origin  . Human Tissues and Embryos (Draft) Bill. London : The Stationery Office. DeWitt, Natalie.2002. “Biologists divided over proposal to create human‐mouse embryos. Nature  420:255. Dey, Runu, AntoniBarrientos, and Carlos TMoraes2000. “Functional Constraints of Nuclear‐Mitochondrial DNA Interactions in Xenomitochondrial Rodent Cell Lines. Journal of Biological Chemistry  275:31520–27. Dominko, Tanja, MaissamMitalipova, BradHaley, et al.1999. “Bovine Oocyte Cytoplasm Supports Development of Embryos Produced by Nuclear Transfer of Somatic Cell Nuclei from Various Mammalian Species. Biology of Reproduction  60:1496–1502. Editorial.2007. “Avoiding a chimaera quagmire. Nature  445: 1. Eggan, Kevin.2007. “Dollys Legacy: Human Nuclear Transplantation and Better Medicines for Our Children. Cloning Stem Cells  9:21–25. ElShourbagy, ShahinazH., Emma C.Spikings, MarianaFreitas, and Justin C.St John. 2006. “Mitochondria directly influence fertilisation outcome in the pig. Reproduction  131:233–45. Evans, Matthew J., CaganGurer, John D.Loike, et al.1999. “Mitochondrial DNA genotypes in nuclear transfer‐derived cloned sheep. Nature Genetics  23:90–93. Fehilly, Carole B., S. M.Willadsen, and Elizabeth M.Tucker1984. “Interspecific chimaerism between sheep and goat. Nature  307:634–36. Fleming, Nic.2007. “Hybrid embryo ban ‘would cost patients’ lives  The Daily Telegraph  (5 January 2007), 10. Frey, R. G.2003. “Animals  .” In Oxford Handbook of Practical Ethics, ed. HughLaFollette, 161–87. New York : Oxford Univ. Press. Gilad, Yoav, AliciaOshlack, Gordon K.Smith, et al.2006. “Expression profiling in primates reveals a rapid evolution of human transcription factors. Nature  440:242–45. Goldstein, Ronald S., MichaDrukker, Benjamin E.Reubinoff, and NissumBenvenisty2002. “Integration and Differentiation of Human Embryonic Stem Cells Transplanted to the Chick Embryo. Developmental Dynamics  225:80–86. Gómez, Martha C., C.Earl Pope, AngelicaGiraldo, et al.2004. “Birth of African Wildcat Cloned Kittens Born from Domestic Cats. Cloning Stem Cells  6:247–58. Graham, Billy.1955. The Secret of Happiness: Jesus' Teaching on Happiness as Expressed in the Beatitudes. Garden City, N.Y. : Doubleday. Greely, Henry T., Mildred K.Cho, Linda F.Hogle, and Debra M.Satz2007. “Thinking About the Human Neuron Mouse. The American Journal of Bioethics  7 (5): 27–40. Greene, Mark, KathrynSchill, ShojiTakahashi, et al.2005. “Ethics: Moral Issues of Human‐Non‐human Primate Neural Grafting. Science  309:385–86. Hefner, Philip.1993. The Human Factor: Evolution, Culture, and Religion. Minneapolis : Fortress. Henderson, Mark.2007a. “Cloning ‘can beat disease’  ” The [London] Times (5 January 2007), 6. Henderson, Mark.2007b. “Medicine faces ban on rabbit‐human embryos  .” The [London] Times (5 January 2007), 1–2. Henderson, Mark.2007c. “Ministers have been spooked by ‘frankenbunny’ headlines  .” The [London] Times (5 January 2007), 7. Herzfeld, Noreen.2002. “Creating in Our Image: Artificial Intelligence and the Image of God. Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science  37:303–16. Hey, Jody.2006. “On the failure of modern species concepts. Trends in Ecology & Evolution  21:447–50. Hiendleder, Stefan, KatjaPrelle, KatjaBrüggerhoff, et al.2004. “Nuclear‐Cytoplasmic Interactions Affect In Utero Developmental Capacity, Phenotype, and Cellular Metabolism of Bovine Nuclear Transfer Fetuses. Biology of Reproduction  70:1196–1205. Hiendleder, Stefan, ValeriZakhartchenko, HendrikWenigerkind, et al.2003. “Heteroplasmy in Bovine Fetuses Produced by Intra‐and Inter‐Subspecific Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer: Neutral Segregation of Nuclear Donor Mitochondrial DNA in Various Tissues and Evidence for Recipient Cow Mitochondria in Fetal Blood. Biology of Reproduction  68:159–66. Humpherys, David, KevinEggan, HidenoriAkutsu, et al.2002. “Abnormal gene expression in cloned mice derived from embryonic stem cell and cumulus cell nuclei. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.  99:12889–94. Ikumi, Sachiko, KenSawai, YurikaTakeuchi, et al.2004. “Interspecies Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer for In Vitro Production of Antarctic Minke Whale (Balaenoptera bonaerensis) Embryos. Cloning Stem Cells  6:284–93. Illmensee, Karl, MikeLevanduski, and Panaviotis M.Zavos2006. “Evaluation of the embryonic preimplantation potential of human adult somatic cells via an embryo interspecies bioassay using bovine oocytes. Fertility and Sterility  85 (Suppl. 1): 1248–60. Ivanova, Natalia, RaduDobrin, RongLu, et al.2006. “Dissecting self‐renewal in stem cells with RNA interference. Nature  442:533–38. Jaenisch, Rudolph, and IanWilmut2001. “Developmental Biology. Don't Clone HumansScience  291:2552. James, Daylon, Scott A.Noggle, TomaszSwigut, and Ali H.Brivanlou2006. “Contribution of human embryonic stem cells to mouse blastocysts. Developmental Biology  295:90–102. Kang, Yong‐Kook, Deog‐BonKoo, Jung‐SunPark, et al.2001. “Aberrant methylation of donor genome in cloned bovine embryos. Nature Genetics  28:173–77. Karpowicz, Philip, Cynthia B.Cohen, and Derek van derKooy.2004. “It is ethical to transplant human stem cells into nonhuman embryos. Nature Medicine  10:331–35. Karpowicz, Philip2005. “Developing human‐non human chimeras in human stem cell research: Ethical issues and boundaries. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal  15:107–34. Kass, Leon R.1985. Toward a More Natural Science: Biology and Human Affairs. New York : Free Press. Kenyon, Lesley, and Carlos T.Moraes. 1997. “Expanding the functional human mitochondrial DNA database by the establishment of primate xenomitochondrial cybrids. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.  94:9131–35. Kim, Min‐Kyu, GooJang, HyunJu Oh, et al.2007. “Endangered Wolves Cloned from Adult Somatic Cells. Cloning Stem Cells  9: 130–37. Kind, Alexander, and AlanColman.1999. “Therapeutic cloning: Needs and prospects. Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology  10:279–86. Kishigami, Satoshi, EijiMizutani, HiroshiOhta, et al.2006. “Significant improvement of mouse cloning technique by treatment with trichostatin A after somatic nuclear transfer. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications  340:183–89. Knight, Jonathan.2004. “Biologists fear cloning hype will undermine stem‐cell research. Nature  430:817. Lagutina, Irina, GiovannaLazzari, RobertoDuchi, and CesareGalli. 2004. “Developmental Potential of Bovine Androgenetic and Parthenogenetic Embryos: A Comparative Study. Biology of Reproduction  70:400–405. Lanza, Robert P., Jose B.Cibelli, FranciscaDiaz, et al.2000. “Cloning of an Endangered Species (Bos gaurus) Using Interspecies Nuclear Transfer. Cloning  2:79–90. Lawrence, Eleanor.2005. Hendersons Dictionary of Biology Thirteenth Edition. Harlow, England : Prentice‐Hall. Le Douarin, N. M.1969. “Particularités du noyau interphasique chez la caille japonaise (Coturnix coturnix japonica)” (Details of the interphase nucleus in Japanese quail [Coturnix coturnix japonica]). Bulletin Biologique de la France et de la Belgique  103:435–52. Lee, Byeongchun, Gemechu G.Wirtu, PhilipDamiani, et al.2003. “Blastocyst Development after Intergeneric Nuclear Transfer of Mountain Bongo Antelope Somatic Cells into Bovine Oocytes. Cloning Stem Cells  5:25–33. Levy, Shawn E., Katrina G.Waymire, Yoon L.Kim, et al.1999. “Transfer of chloramphenicol‐resistant mitochondrial DNA into the chimeric mouse. Transgenic Research  8:137–45. Li, Yanxin, YunpingDai, WeihuaDu, et al.2006. “Cloned Endangered Species Takin (Budorcas taxicolor) by Inter‐Species Nuclear Transfer and Comparison of the Blastocyst Development with Yak (Bos grunniens) and Bovine. Molecular Reproduction and Development  73: 189–95. Linzey, Andrew.1994. Animal Theology. London : SCM Press. Linzey, Andrew.2004. Animal Gospel. Louisville, Ky : Westminster John Knox. Liu, Shu‐Zhen, Zhen‐MingZhou, TaoChen, et al.2004. “Blastocysts Produced by Nuclear Transfer between Chicken Blastodermal Cells and Rabbit Oocytes. Molecular Reproduction and Development  69:296–302. Loi, Pasqualino, GrazynaPtak, BarbaraBarboni, et al.2001. “Genetic rescue of an endangered mammal by cross‐species nuclear transfer using post‐mortem somatic cells. Nature Biotechnology  19:962–64. Lu, Fenghua, DeshunShi, JingweiWei, et al.2005. “Development of embryos reconstructed by interspecies nuclear transfer of adult fibroblasts between buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and cattle (Bos indicus). Theriogenology  64:1309–19. Mann, Mellissa R. W., Young GieChung, Leisha D.Nolen, et al.2003. “Disruption of Imprinted Gene Methylation and Expression in Cloned Preimplantation Stage Mouse Embryos. Biology of Reproduction  69:902–14. Margulis, Lynn, Michael F.Dolan, and RicardoGuerrero2000. “The chimeric eukaryote: origin of the nucleus from the karyomastigont in amitochondriate protists. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.  97:6954–59. Marris, Emma.2007. “The species and the specious. Nature  446:250–53. May‐Panloup, P., M. FChrétien, C.Jacques, et al.2005. “Low oocyte mitochondrial DNA content in ovarian insufficiency. Human Reproduction  20:593–97. Mayr, Ernst.1996. “What Is a Species, and What Is NotPhilosophy of Science  63:262–77. McGrath, Alister E.2001. Christian Theology: An Introduction. Oxford : Blackwell. McKenzie, Matthew, MariaChiotis, Carl A.Pinkert, and Ian A.Trounce2003. “Functional Respiratory Chain Analyses in Murid Xenomitochondrial Cybrids Expose Coevolutionary Constraints of Cytochrome b and Nuclear Subunits of Complex III. Molecular Biology and Evolution  20:1117–24. McKenzie, Matthew, and IanTrounce2000. “Expression of Rattus norvegicus mtDNA in Mus musculus Cells Results in Multiple Respiratory Chain Defects. Journal of Biological Chemistry  275:31514–19. Meng, Li, John J.Ely, Richard L.Stouffer, and Don P.Wolf1997. “Rhesus Monkeys Produced by Nuclear Transfer. Biology of Reproduction  57:454–59. Michaels, G. S., W. W.Hauswirth, and P. J.Laipis. 1982. “Mitochondrial DNA copy number in bovine oocytes and somatic cells. Developmental Biology  94:246–51. Millard, A., and P.Bordreuil. 1982. “A Statue from Syria with Assyrian and Aramaic Inscriptions. The Biblical Archaeologist  45:135–41. Miller, J. Maxwell.1972. “In the ‘Image’ and ‘Likeness’ of God. Journal of Biblical Literature  91:289–304. Minger, Stephen.2006. “Junk medicine: therapeutic cloning  .” The [London] Times (Body & Soul, 11 November 2006), 5. Mishler, Brent D., and Michael J.Donoghue1982. “Species concepts: A case for pluralism. Systematic Zoology  31:491–503. Mitalipov, Shoukhrat M., Richard R.Yeoman, Kevin D.Nusser, et al.2002. “Rhesus monkey embryos produced by nuclear transfer from embryonic blastomeres or somatic cells. Biology of Reproduction  66:1367–73. Moraes, Carlos T., LesleyKenyon, and HuilingHao1999. “Mechanisms of Human Mitochondrial DNA Maintenance: The Determining Role of Primary Sequence and Length over Function. Molecular Biology of the Cell  10:3345–56. Moss, Lyndsay.2007. “Scientists say disease research at risk after ‘knee‐jerk’ reaction to embryo proposals  .” The Scotsman (5 January 2007), 8. Muotri, Alysson R., KinichiNakashima, NicolasToni, et al.2005. “Development of functional human embryonic stem cell‐derived neurons in mouse brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.  102:18644–48. Murakami, Masao, TakeshigeOtoi, PimpraparWongsrikeao, et al.2005. “Development of Interspecies Cloned Embryos in Yak and Dog. Cloning Stem Cells  7:77–81. NAS Guidelines Committee.2005. Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research. Washington, D.C. : National Academies Press. Nature staff.2006. “Korean women launch lawsuit over egg donation. Nature  440: 1102. Origen [c. 248] 1994. “Origen against Celsus: Book IX, Chapter 85  .” In Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second, trans. FrederickCrombie, ed. AlexanderRoberts and JamesDonaldson, 535. Peabody, Mass. : Hendrickson. Parfit, Derek.1982. “Future Generations: Further Problems. Philosophy and Public Affairs  11:113–72. Parfit, Derek.1986. Reasons and Persons. Oxford : Oxford Univ. Press. Peters, Ted.2003. Science, Theology, and Ethics. Aldershot, U.K. : Ashgate. Prabhakar, Shyam, James P.Noonan, SvantePääbo, and Edward M.Rubin2006. “Accelerated Evolution of Conserved Noncoding Sequences in Humans. Science  314:786. Reynier, P., P.May‐Panloup, M‐FChrétien, et al.2001. “Mitochondrial DNA content affects the fertilizability of human oocytes. Molecular Human Reproduction  7:425–29. Rhind, Susan M., Jane E.Taylor, Paul A.De Sousa, et al.2003. “Human cloning: can it be made safeNature Reviews Genetics  4:855–64. Robert, Jason Scott.2006. “The science and ethics of making part‐human animals in stem cell biologyThe FASEB Journal  20:838–45. Rollin, Bernard E.1995. The Frankenstein Syndrome: Ethical and Social Issues in the Genetic Engineering of Animals. New York : Cambridge Univ. Press. Rollin, Bernard E.1998. “On telos and genetic engineering  .” In Animal Biotechnology and Ethics, ed. A.Holland and A.Johnson, 156–71. London : Chapman and Hall. Rollin, Bernard E.2007. “Of Mice and Men. The American Journal of Bioethics  7 (5): 55–57. Rose, David.2007. “Research is now my only hope of a cure  .” The [London] Times (5 January 2007), 7. Rossant, Janet, and AndrewSpence1998. “Chimeras and mosaics in mouse mutant analysis. Trends in Genetics  14:358–63. Rossiianov, Kirill.2002. “Beyond Species: Il'ya Ivanov and His Experiments on Cross‐breeding Humans with Anthropoid Apes. Science in Context  15:277–316. Ruse, Michael.2000. Can a Darwinian Be a Christian? New York : Cambridge Univ. Press. Sansinena, M. J., D.Hylan, K.Hebert, et al.2005. “Banteng (Bos javanicus) embryos and pregnancies produced by interspecies nuclear transfer. Theriogenology  63:1081–91. Santos, Fatima, ValeriZakhartchenko, MiodragStojkovic, et al.2003. “Epigenetic Marking Correlates with Developmental Potential in Cloned Bovine Preimplantation Embryos. Current Biology  13:1116–21. Santos, Teresa Almeida, Shahy ElShourbagy, and Justin C.St. John. 2006. “Mitochondrial content reflects oocyte variability and fertilization outcome. Fertility and Sterility  85:584–91. Scott, Christopher Thomas.2006. “Chimeras in the crosshairs. Nature Biotechnology  24:487–90. Select Committee.2005. “Human Reproductive Technologies and the Law.” House of Commons Science and Technology Committee, Fifth Report of Session 2004‐05 , vol. I:31–32. London : The Stationery Office. Scott, Christopher Thomas.2007. “Government Proposals for the Regulation of Hybrid and Chimera Embryos.” House of Commons Science and Technology Committee, Fifth Report of Session 2006‐07 , vol I:5–6, 44–46. London : The Stationery Office. Silva, José, IanChambers, StevenPollard, and AustinSmith2006. “Nanog promotes transfer of pluripotency after cell fusion. Nature  441:997–1001. Silver, Lee M.2006. Challenging Nature: The Clash of Science and Spirituality at the New Frontiers of Life. New York : Ecco. Simerly, Calvin, ChristopherNavara, Sang HwanHyun, et al.2004. “Embryogenesis and blastocyst development after somatic cell nuclear transfer in nonhuman primates: overcoming defects caused by meiotic spindle extraction. Developmental Biology  276:237–52. Singer, Peter.1989. “All Animals Are Equal  .” In Animal Rights and Human Obligations, ed. TomRegan and PeterSinger, 148–62. Englewood Cliffs , N.J. : Prentice Hall. Singh, Umashankar, Laurel E.Fohn, TeruhikoWakayama, et al.2004. “Different molecular mechanisms underlie placental overgrowth phenotypes caused by interspecies hybridization, cloning, and Esx1 mutation. Developmental Dynamics  230:149–64. Sligh, James E., Shawn E.Levy, Katrina G.Waymire, et al.2000. “Maternal germ‐line transmission of mutant mtDNAs from embryonic stem cell‐derived chimeric mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.  97:14461–66. Smith, A. D., A. P.Datta, G.Howard Smith, et al.1997. Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Oxford : Oxford Univ. Press. Somers, Joanna, CraigSmith, MartynDonnison, et al.2006. “Gene expression profiling of individual bovine nuclear transfer blastocysts. Reproduction  131:1073–84. Southgate, Christopher, and Michael RobertNegus1999. “Theology and Evolutionary Biology  .” In God, Humanity and the Cosmos: A Textbook in Science and Religion, ed. ChristopherSouthgate, 137–72. Edinburgh : T&T Clark. Steinborn, Ralf, PamelaSchinogl, David N.Wells, et al.2002. “Coexistence of Bos taurus and B. indicus Mitochondrial DNAs in Nuclear Transfer‐‐Derived Somatic Cattle Clones. Genetics  162:823–29. Steuerwald, Nury, Jason A.Barritt, RickAdler, et al.2000. “Quantification of mtDNA in single oocytes, polar bodies and subcellular components by real‐time rapid cycle fluorescence monitored PCR. Zygote  8:209–15. Streiffer, Robert.2005. “At the edge of humanity: human stem cells, chimeras, and moral status. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal  15:347–70. Sun, Yong‐Hua, Shang‐PingChen, Ya‐PingWang, et al.2005. “Cytoplasmic Impact on Cross‐Genus Cloned Fish Derived from Transgenic Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) Nuclei and Goldfish (Carassius auratus) Enucleated Eggs. Biology of Reproduction  72:510–15. Takahashi, Kazutoshi, and ShinyaYamanaka2006. “Induction of Pluripotent Stem Cells from Mouse Embryonic and Adult Fibroblast Cultures by Defined Factors. Cell  126:663–76. Torrance, David W.1999. “The Mission of Christians and Jews  .” In A Passion for Christ, ed. GerritDawson and JockStein, 115–28. Edinburgh : Handsel. Verhey, Allen.2003. Reading the Bible in the Strange World of Medicine. Grand Rapids, Mich. : Wm. B. Eerdmans. Vrana, Paul B., John A.Fossella, PaulMatteson, et al.2000. “Genetic and epigenetic incompatibilities underlie hybrid dysgenesis in Peromyscus. Nature Genetics  25:120–24. Vrana, Paul B., Xiao‐JuanGuan, Robert S.Ingram, and Shirley M.Tilghman1998. “Genomic imprinting is disrupted in interspecific Peromyscus hybrids. Nature Genetics  20:362–65. Wakayama, Teruhiko.2004. “On the road to therapeutic cloning. Nature Biotechnology  22:399–400. White, Kenneth L., Thomas D.Bunch, ShoukhratMitalipov, and William A.Reed1999. “Establishment of Pregnancy after the Transfer of Nuclear Transfer Embryos Produced from the Fusion of Argali (Ovis ammon) Nuclei into Domestic Sheep (Ovis aries) Enucleated Oocytes. Cloning  1: 47–54. Wiley, E. O.1978. “The evolutionary species concept reconsidered. Systematic Zoology  27:17–26. Wilmut, Ian.2004. “The moral imperative for human cloning. New Scientist  181 (2435): 16–17. Wilmut, Ian.2007. “Embryonic steps to cure inherited ills  .” The Scotsman (5 January 2007), 32. Wilmut, Ian, and RogerHighfield2006. After Dolly: The Uses and Misuses of Human Cloning. London : Little, Brown. Wyatt, John.1998. Matters of Life and Death. Leicester, England : InterVarsity. Yang, Cai‐Xia, Zhao‐HuiKou, KaiWang, et al.2004. “Quantitative analysis of mitochondrial DNAs in macaque embryos reprogrammed by rabbit oocytes. Reproduction  127:201–5. Yang, Jifeng, ShihuaYang, NathalieBeaujean, et al.2007. “Epigenetic Marks in Cloned Rhesus Monkey Embryos: Comparison with Counterparts Produced In Vitro. Biology of Reproduction  76:36–42. Yin, Xijin, YounghoLee, HyosangLee, et al.2006. “In vitro production and initiation of pregnancies in inter‐genus nuclear transfer embryos derived from leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) nuclei fused with domestic cat (Felis silverstris catus) enucleated oocytes. Theriogenology  66:275–82. Zavos, P. M., and K.Illmensee. 2006. “Possible therapy of male infertility by reproductive cloning: one cloned human 4‐cell embryo. Archives of Andrology  52:243–54. Zechner, U., W.Shi, M.Hemberger, et al.2004. “Divergent genetic and epigenetic post‐zygotic isolation mechanisms in Mus and Peromyscus. Journal of Evolutionary Biology  17:453–60. Zhao, Zhen‐Jun, Rui‐ChangLi, Heng‐HuaCao, et al.2007. “Interspecies Nuclear Transfer of Tibetan Antelope Using Caprine Oocyte as Recipient. Molecular Reproduction and De velopment  74:412–19. Zhao, Zhen‐Jun, Ying‐ChunOuyang, Chang‐LongNan, et al.2006. “Rabbit Oocyte Cytoplasm Supports Development of Nuclear Transfer Embryos Derived from the Somatic Cells of the Camel and Tibetan Antelope. Journal of Reproduction and Development  52:449–59. Zuckerman, S. H., F. P.Gillespie, J. F.Solus, et al.1986. “Mitochondrial Protein Synthesis in Interspecific Somatic Cell Hybrids. Somatic Cell and Molecular Genetics  12:449–58.