Notes

1. . Donald T. Campbell, “‘Downward Causation’ in Hierarchically Organized Biological Systems,” in Studies in the Philosophy of Biology, ed. Francisco J. Ayala and Theodosius Dobzhansky (London: Macmillan Co., 1974).
2. . H. Becker and H. E. Barnes, Social Thought from Lore to Science, 3d ed. (New York: Dover Publications, 1961).
3. . Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life (London: John Murray, 1859); J. W. Burrow, Evolution and Society: A Study in Victorian Social Theory (London: Cambridge University Press, 1966).
4. . H. S. Maine, Ancient Law (London: John Murray, 1861); E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom, 2 vols. (London: John Murray, 1871); Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology (New York: Appleton, 1880); L. H. Morgan, Ancient Society (New York: Holt, 1878).
5. . For the history and reasons for this, see my “Variation and Selective Retention in Socio‐Cultural Evolution,” in social Change in Developing Areas, ed. H. R. Barringer, G. I. Blanksten, and R. W. Mack (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman Publishing Co., 1965); and G. W. Stocking, Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (New York: Free Press, 1968).
6. . G. P. Murdock, Social Structure (New York: Macmillan Co., 1949); V. G. Childe, Social Evolution (London: Watts, 1951); J. H. Steward, Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1955); L. A. White, The Evolution of Culture (New York: McGraw‐Hill Book Co., 1959); J. B. Meggers, ed., Evolution and Anthropology: A Centennial Appraisal (Washington, D.C.: Anthropological Society of Washington, 1959); W. R. Goldschmidt, Understanding Human Society (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1959); Sol Tax, ed., The Evolution of Man: Mind, Culture, and Society, Evolution after Darwin: The University of Chicago Centennial, vol. 2 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960); M. D. Sahlins and E. R. Service, eds., Evolution and Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960); R. Cohen, “The Strategy of Social Evolution,” Anthropologica 4 (1962): 321–48; E. R. Service, Primitive Social Organization: An Evolutionary Perspective (New York: Random House, 1962); R. M. Adams, The Evolution of Urban Society (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1966); M. H. Fried, The Evolution of Political Society (New York: Random House, 1967); M. Harris, The Rise of Anthropological Theory (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1968); R. Naroll and F. Naroll, Main Currents in Cultural Anthropology (New York: Appleton‐Century‐Crofts, 1973). References in this and other citations here are listed chronologically rather than alphabetically to show historical progression.
7. . Margaret Mead, Continuities in Cultural Evolution (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1964); A. L. Kroeber, “Evolution, History and Culture,” in Tax (n. 6 above).
8. . E.g., G. Swanson, The Birth of the Gods (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960); M. Banton, ed., Darwinism and the Study of Society (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1961); A. W. Gouldner and R. A. Peterson, Notes on Technology and the Moral Order (Indianapolis: Bobbs‐Merrill Co., 1962); Talcott Parsons, “Evolutionary Universals in Society,” American Sociological Review 29 (1964): 339–57; idem, Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives (Englewood Cliffs, N.1.: Prentice‐Hall, Inc., 1966); R. D. Schwartz and J. C. Miller, “Legal Evolution and Societal Complexity,” American Journal of Sociology 70 (1964): 159–69; Robert N. Bellah, “Religious Evolution,” American Sociological Review 29 (1964): 358–74; K. E. Weick, The Social Psychology of Organizing (Reading, Mass.: Addison‐Wesley Publishing Co., 1969); G. Lenski, Human Societies: A Marcrolevel Introduction to Sociology (New York: McGraw‐Hill Book Go., 1970); S. N. Eisenstadt, Readings in Social Evolution (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1970).
9. . C. S.Phillips, Jr., “The Revival of Cultural Evolution in Social Science Theory,” Journal of Developing Areas  3 (1971): 337–69.
10. . E.g., G. G. Simpson, The Meaning of Evolution (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1969); C. H. Waddington, The Ethical Animal (London: Allen & Unwin, 1960); Theodosius Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving: The Evolution, of the Human Species (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1962); J. N. Spuhler, ed., The Evolution of Man's Capacity for Culture (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1965).
11. . W. R. Ashby, Design for a Brain (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1952); Donald T. Campbell, “Ethnocentric and Other Altruistic Motives,” in Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, vol. 13, ed. D. Levine (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1965).
12. . J. M. Baldwin, Mental Development in the Child and the Race (New York: Macmillan Co., 1900).
13. . A. G. Keller, Societal Evolution (New York: Macmillan Co., 1915; rev. ed., New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1931); T. N. Carver, The Essential Factors of Social Evolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1935).
14. . E.g., note Tylor's use of the word “survival” (n. 4 above); Spencer (n. 4 above).
15. . Campbell (n. 5 above). For criticisms, see P. Corning, “Politics and Evolutionary Process,” in Evolutionary Biology, vol. 7, ed. Theodosius Dobzhansky, M. K. Hecht, and W. C. Steers (New York: Plenum Press, 1974).
16. . Campbell (n. 5 above).
17. . Campbell (nn. 5, 11); Donald T. Campbell, “On the Genetics of Altruism and the Counter‐hedonic Components in Human Culture,” Journal of Social Issues 28 (1972): 21–37 (reprinted in Positive Forms of Social Behavior, ed. Lauren G. Wispé [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, in press]); R. A. LeVine and Donald T. Campbell, Ethnocentricism: Theories of Conflict, Ethnic Attitudes and Group Behavior (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1972).
18. . Waddington (n. 10 above).
19. . E. H. Lenneberg, Biological Foundations of Language (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1967). But see my “Ostensive Instances and Entitativity in Language Learning,” in Unity through Diversity, ed. W. Gray and N. D. Rizzo, pt. 2 (New York: Gordon & Breach, 1973).
20. . J. W.Bridges. An Experimental Study of Decision Types and Their Mental Correlates,” Psychological Monographs  17, no. 72 (1914): 1–72.
21. . S. E. Asch, Social Psychology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, Inc., 1952); Donald T. Campbell, “Conformity in Psychology's Theories of Acquired Behavioral Dispositions,” in Conformity and Deviation, ed. I. A. Berg and B. M. Bass (New York: Harper & Bros., 1961).
22. . L.Festinger, “Informal Social Communication,” Psychological Review  57 (1950): 271–82; J. E.Singer, L. S.Radloff, and D. M.Work, “Renegades, Heretics, and Changes in Sentiment,” Sociometry  26 (1963): 178–89.
23. . S. Milgram, Obedience to Authority (New York: Harper & Row, 1974).
24. . See my “Reintroducing Konrad Lorenz to Psychology,” in Konrad Lorenz: The Man and His Ideas, ed. R. I. Evans (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975); Konrad Lorenz, “The Enmity between Generations and Its Probable Ethological Causes,” Stadium Generale 23 (1970): 963–97 (reprinted in Konrad Lorenz); idem, Civilized Man's Eight Deadly Sins (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973).
25. . Lorenz, “Enmity between Generations.”
26. . W. Bagehot, Physics and Politics (New York: Appleton, 1884).
27. . Herbert Spencer, The Data of Ethics (New York: Appleton, 1879); also in his The Principles of Ethics (New York: Appleton, 1892), p. xiv.
28. . E.g., L. Stephen, The Science of Ethics (New York: Putnam, 1882); J. M. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations in Mental Development: A Study in Social Psychology (New York: Macmillan Co., 1897); A. Sutherland, The Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct (London: Longmans, Green, 1898); S. Alexander, Moral Order and Progress (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Tr;Ébner, 1889); L. T. Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution (New York: Holt, 1906); E. Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan Co., 1906–8); J. G. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy (London: Macmillan Co., 1910); E. H. Sneath, ed., The Evolution of Ethics as Revealed in the Great Religions (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1927); M. Ginsberg, Moral Progress (Glasgow: Jackson, 1944).
29. . Spencer, Data of Ethics and Principles of Ethics, pp. xiv‐xv.
30. . Stephen (n. 28 above).
31. . E.g., Hobhouse; Westermarck; and Frazer (n. 28 above).
32. . Thomas H. Huxley, “Evolution and Ethics,” in Touchstone for Ethics, ed. Thomas H. Huxley and Julian Huxley (1893; reprint ed., New York: Harper & Bros., 1947); Julian Huxley, “Evolutionary Ethics,” in ibid.
33. . W. S. Quillian, The Moral Theory of Evolutionary Naturalism (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1945); Antony Flew Evolutionary Ethics (London: Macmillan Co., 1967).
34. . E.g., I. Eibl‐Eibesfeldt, Love and Hate (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1972); Konrad Lorenz, “Moralanaloges Verhalten geselliger Tiere,” Forschung und Wirtschaft 4 (1954): 1–23; Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, “L'Evolution de la chasteté,” in Les Directions de l'avenir (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1973); W. Wickler, The Biology of the Ten Commandments (New York: McGraw‐Hill Book Co., 1972); idem, The Sexual Code: The Social Behavior of Animals and Men (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1972); E. 0. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1975).
35. . E.g., R. Ardrey, African Genesis (New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1961); idem, The Territorial Imperative: A Personal Inquiry into the Animal Origins of Property and Nations (New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1966); R. Bigelow, The Dawn Warriors: Man's Evolution toward Peace (Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1969); idem, “The Evolution of Cooperation, Aggression, and Self‐control,” in Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, vol. 20, ed. J. K. Cole and D. D. Jensen (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972); J. F. Eisenberg and W. S. Dillon, eds., Man and Beast: Comparative Social Behavior (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971); Erich Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1973); Konrad Lorenz, On Aggression (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966); Ashley Montagu, ed., Man and Aggression, 2d ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), esp. “The New Litany of ‘Innate Depravity’ or Original Sin Revisited”; C. Russell and W. M. S. Russell, Violence, Monkeys and Man (London: Macmillan Co., 1968); J. P. Scott, Aggression (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958); A. Storr, Human Aggression (London: Allen Lane, Penguin Press, 1968); L. Tiger and R. Fox, The Imperial Animal (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1971).
36. . Campbell, n. 11 above, and “Genetics of Altruism” (n. 17 above).
37. . For introductions to this already burgeoning literature, see P. Corning, “The Biological Bases of Behavior and Some Implications for Political Science,” World Politics 23 (1971): 321–70, and n. 15 above; R. D. Masters, “Genes, Language, and Evolution,” Semiotics 2 (1970): 295–320; idem, “Functional Approaches to Analogical Comparisons between Species,” Social Science Information 12 (1973); 7–35; idem, “Politics as a Biological Phenomenon,” ibid. 14 (1975): 7–63; A. Somit, “Review Article: Biopolitics,” British Journal of Political Science 2 (1972): 209–38.
38. . E.g., R. D. Alexander, “The Search for a General Theory of Behavior,” Behavioral Science 20 (1975): 77–100; S. Moscovici, La Sociéte contre nature (Paris: Union Générale d'Editions, 1972).
39. . Wilson (n. 34 above).
40. . J. Hirsch, ed., Behavior‐genetic Analysis (New York: McGraw‐Hill Book Co., 1967); G. E. McClearn and J. C. DeFries, Introduction to Behavioral Genetics (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Go., 1973).
41. . J. B. S. Haldane, The Causes of Evolution (London: Longmans, 1932).
42. . V. C. Wynne‐Edwards, Animal Dispersion in Relation to Social Behavior (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1962).
43. . G. C. Williams, Adaptation and Natural Selection (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966).
44. . M. T. Ghiselin, The Economy of Nature and the Evolution of Sex (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974).
45. . Wilson (n. 34 above), pp. 106–29.
46. . Williams; R. L.Trivers, “The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism,” Quarterly Review of Biology  46, no. 4 (1971): 35–57; Ghiselin.
47. . Trivers; Wilson, pp. 124–25.
48. . W. D. Hamilton, “The Genetical Evolution of Social Behavior,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 7 (1964): 1–51 (reprinted in Group Selection, ed. G. C. Williams [Chicago: Aldine‐Atherton, Inc., 19713).
49. . Hamilton, in Group Selection, p. 42.
50. . Ibid., p. 43.
51. . W. D. Hamilton, “Addendum,” in Group Selection.
52. . Trivers (n. 46 above); idem, “Parental Investment and Sexual Selection,” in Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man, ed. B. Campbell (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1972); idem, “Parent‐Offspring Conflict,” American Zoologist 14 (1974): 249–64.
53. . Trivers (n. 46 above).
54. . Trivers, “Parental Investment” and “Parent‐Offspring Conflict.”
55. . Williams (n. 43 above); idem, Sex and Evolution (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975); Ghiselin (n. 44 above).
56. . Ghiselin, p. 247.
57. . Alexander (n. 38 above).
58. . Wilson (n. 34 above); idem, “The Genetic Evolution of Altruism,” in Positive Forms of Social Behavior (n. 17 above).
59. . A. Keith, A New Theory of Human Evolution (New York: Philosophical Library, 1949); R. A. Dart, “The Predatory Transition from Ape to Man,” International An thropological and Linguistic Review 1 (1953): 201–8; Ardrey (n. 35 above); Bigelow (n. 35 above); R. D. Alexander, “The Search for an Evolutionary Philosophy of Man,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 84 (1971): 99–120; idem (n. 38 above); E. O. Wilson, “Competition and Aggressive Behavior,” in Man and Beast (n. 35 above); idem (n. 34 above). See also H. J. Jerison, Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence (New York: Academic Press, 1973).
60. . Wilson (n. 34 above), pp. 110–11; Num. 31:7, 17–18.
61. . A. Keith, Evolution and Ethics (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1947).
62. . W. M. Wheeler, The Social Insects (New York: Harcourt Brace & Co., 1928); W. C. Allee et al., Principles of Animal Ecology (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1949); M. V. Brian, Social Insect Populations (New York: Academic Press, 1965); K. Krishna and F. M. Weesner, eds., Biology of Termites (New York: Academic Press, 1969); Wilson, “Competition and Aggressive Behavior” (n. 59 above).
63. . See n. 34 above.
64. . Spencer, Principles of Ethics (n. 27 above), p. 300.
65. . Lafcadio Hearn, Kwaidan (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1904), reprinted in The Writings of Lafcadio Hearn, 16 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Go., 1923), 9:298–99.
66. . Maurice Maeterlinck, The Life of the White Ant (London: Allen & Unwin, 1927), pp. 18–21, 153–56. See also his The Life of the Bee (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1901).
67. . Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, trans. Joan Riviere (London: Hogarth Press, 1930), pp. 35–36.
68. . Russell and Russell (n. 35 above), p. 263.
69. . Campbell, “Genetics of Altruism” (n. 17 above); TheodosiusDobzhansky, “Ethics and Values in Biological and Cultural Evolution,” Zygon  8 (1973): 261–81 (reprinted in Positive Forms of Social Behavior [n. 17 above]); Alexander (n. 38 above); Wilson (n. 34 above).
70. . Wispé (n. 17 above); R. D. Masters, “Of Marmots and Men: Animal Behavior and Human Altruism,” in ibid.; G. Whitney, “Original Sin Rides Again: Comments on ‘The Genetics of Altruism,”” in ibid.
71. . Campbell (n. 11 above).
72. . Wilson (n. 34 above), pp. 106–29; “Genetic Evolution of Altruism” (n. 58 above).
73. . For more details, see R.Hogan'sTheoretical Egocentrism and the Problem of Compliance,” American Psychologist  5 (1975): 533–40, and Personality Theory: The Personological Tradition (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, Inc., 1976).
74. . J. W. Thibault and H. H. Kelley, The Social Psychology of Groups (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1959); G. C. Homans, Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961). In my “Ethnocentric and Other Altruistic Motives” (n. 11 above) I criticized them for this but recanted in my “Genetics of Altruism” (n. 17 above) after I became aware of the genetics‐of‐altruism issue.
75. . I. D. MacCrone, Race Attitudes in South Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1937); J. Dollard et al., Frustration and Aggression (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1939); L. Berkowitz, Aggression: A Social Psychological Analysis (New York: McGraw‐Hill Book Co., 1962); LeVine and Campbell (n. 17 above), pp. 117–35.
76. . Whitney (n. 70 above).
77. . Montagu, “New Litany of ‘Innate Depravity”” (n. 35 above).
78. . See n. 73 above.
79. . O. Hobart Mowrer, The Crisis in Psychiatry and Religion (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1961); idem, ed., Morality and Mental Health (Chicago: Rand‐McNally & Co., 1967); K. Menninger, Whatever Became of Sin? (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973).
80. . V. E. Frankl, Man's Search for Meaning (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963).
81. . Hogan, “Theoretical Egocentrism” (n. 73 above).
82. . Langdon Gilkey, Shantung Compound (New York: Harper & Row, 1966).
83. . Sigmund Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (London: Hogarth Press, 1922).
84. . Ralph Wendell Burhoe, ed., Science and Human Values in the 21st Century (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971); idem, “Natural Selection and God, Zygon 7 (1972): 30–63; J. C. Maloney, “Man as a Socioeconomic Subsystem,” in Gray and Rizzo (n. 19 above).
85. . Swanson (n. 8 above).
86. . Ibid.; Lenski (n. 8 above).
87. . Ralph WendellBurhoe, “The Concepts of God and Soul in a Scientific View of Human Purpose,” Zygon  8 (1973): 412–42; idem, “The HumAn Prospect and the ‘Lord of History,’Zygon  10 (1975): 299–375.
88. . R. M. Kanter, Commitment and Community: Communes and Utopias in Sociological Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972); Melford E. Spiro, Children of the Kibbutz, 2d ed. (New York: Schocken Books, 1965); U. Bronfenbrenner, The Two Worlds of Childhood (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1970); W. Kessen, ed., Childhood in China (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1975).
89. . W. T. Powers, Behavior: The Control of Perception (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1973).
90. . R. K. Tschannen, “An Encyclopedic Sourcebook of Tenochca (Aztec) Morality” (Undergraduate honors thesis, Northwestern University, 1975).
91. . C. Boehm, “Montenegrin Ethical Values: An Experiment in Anthropological Method’ (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1972); R. B. Brandt, Hopi Ethics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954); C. Fürer‐Haimendorf, Morals and Merit: A Study of Values and Social Controls in South Asian Societies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967); J. Ladd, The Structure of a Moral Code (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1957); J. G. Péristiany, Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966); G. Piers and M. B. Singer, Shame and Guilt (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1953).
92. . S. A. B. Mercer, “The Ethics of the Egyptian Religion,” in Sneath (n. 28 above).
93. . Trivers (n. 46 above).
94. . B. B. Whiting, Paiute Sorcery (New York: Viking Fund, 1950); Swanson (n. 8 above).
95. . Moscovici (n. 38 above).
96. . Karl R. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (New York: Basic Books, 1959); idem, Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963; New York: Basic Books, 1963); idem, Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972); Michael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post‐critical Philosophy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958); W. V. Quine, Ontological Relativity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Stephen E. Toulmin, Foresight and Understanding: An Inquiry into the Aims of Science (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961); idem, Human Understanding (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1972), vol. 1; N. R. Hanson, Patterns of Discovery (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958); Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
97. . Donald T. Campbell, “Evolutionary Epistemology,” in The Philosophy of Karl Popper, The Library of Living Philosophers, ed. Paul A. Schilpp, vol. 14, bks. 1 and 2 (La Salle, Ill.: Open Court Publishing Co., 1974); idem, “Unjustified Variation and Selective Retention in Scientific Discovery,” in Studies in the Philosophy of Biology (n. 1 above).
98. . Mowrer, Crisis in Psychiatry and Religion and Morality and Mental Health (n. 79 above); Hogan (n. 73 above).
99. . D. Bakan, Sigmund Freud and the Jewish Mystical Tradition (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1958); Philip Rieff, Freud: The Mind of the Moralist (New York: Viking Press, 1959); idem, The Triumph of the Therapeutic: The Uses of Faith after Freud (New York: Harper & Row, 1966).
100. . Spencer, Data of Ethics (n. 27 above).
101. . MichaelPolanyi, “Why Did We Destroy EuropeStudium Generale  23 (1970): 909–16; Paul A.Weiss, “Depolarisation: Pointers to Conceptual Disarmament,” ibid.  , pp. 925–40.
102. . J. G. Beebe‐Center, The Psychology of Pleasantness and Unpleasantness (New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1932); P. Brickman and Donald T. Campbell, “Hedonic Relativism and Planning the Good Society,” in Adaptation‐Level Theory: A Symposium, ed. M. H. Appley (New York: Academic Press, 1971); H. Helson, Adaptation‐Level Theory: An Experimental and Systematic Approach to Behavior (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); K. Lewin et al., “Level of Aspiration,” in Personality and the Behavior Disorders, ed. J. M. Hunt (New York: Ronald Press, 1944).
103. . Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (New York: Schocken Books, 1968).
104. . GarrettHardin, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” Science  162(1968): 1243–48; T. C.Schelling, “On the Ecology of Micromotives,” Public Interest  25 (1971): 61–98.
105. . Robert L. Heilbroner, An Inquiry into the Human Prospect (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1974).
106. . Burhoe, “Human Prospect” (n. 87 above).
107. . Olson.
108. . Stephen (n. 28 above).
109. . Campbell (n. 24 above).
110. . Masters (n. 70 above).
111. . Donald T.Campbell, “The Conflict between Social and Biological Evolution and the Concept of Original Sin,” Zygon  10 (1975): 234–49.