Notes

  1. . T. O. Fox, “Evolution of Levels of Evolution,” in Molecular Evolution: Prebiological and Biological, ed. D. L. Rohlfing and A. I. Oparin (New York: Plenum Press, 1972).
  2. . As quoted by M. Calvin, Chemical Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press. 1969), p. 4.
  3. . Arthur Koestler and J. R. Smythes, eds., Beyond Reductionism: New Perspectives in the Life Sciences (London: Hutchinson, 1969); W. Whyte, A. G. Wilson, and D. Wilson, eds., Hierarchical Structures (New York: American Elsevier, 1969); Paul A. Weiss, ed., Hierarchically Organized Systems in Theory and Practice (New York: Hafner Publishing Co., 1971); Francisco J. Ayala and Theodosius Dobzhansky, eds., Studies in the Philosophy of Biology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974); H. H. Pattee, ed., Hierarchy Theory: The Challenge of Complex Systems (New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1973); idem, “Physical Problems of Heredity and Evolution,” in Towards a Theoretical Biology, ed. C. H. Waddington, vol. 2 (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1969); idem, “The Problem of Biological Hierarchy,” ibid., vol. 3 (1970); idem, “The Recognition of Description and Function in Chemical Reaction Networks,” in Chemical Evolution and the Origin of Life, ed. R. Buvet and C. Ponnamperuma (Amsterdam: North‐Holland, 1971); idem, “Dynamic and Linguistic Structures in Biological Organization” (discussion paper, Conference on the Political, Psychosocial, Educational and Policy Implications of Structuralism, Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, July 29–31, 1974); Herbert A. Simon, “The Architecture of Complexity,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106 (1962): 467–82; W. M. Elsasser, Atom and Organism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966); Michael Polanyi, “Life's Irreducible Structure,” Science 160 (1968): 1308; D. Bohm, “Some Remarks on the Notion of Order,” in Waddington, ed., vol. 2; John R. Platt, “Hierarchical Growth,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (November 1970), pp. 2–4 (reprinted in General Systems Yearbook 15 [1970]: 49); idem, “On the Probability of Various Steps In Evolution,” in Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence, ed. Carl Sagan (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1974); J. Bronowski, “New Concepts in the Evolution of Complexity: Stratified Stability and Unbounded Plans,” Zygon 5 (1970): 19; Ralph Wendell Burhoe, “Commentary on J. Bronowski's ‘New Concepts in the Evolution of Complexity,” ibid., p. 37; W. Buckley, Sociology and Modern Systems Theory (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, Inc., 1967); Edgar S. Dunn, Jr., Economic and Social Development (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971); A. Katchalsky, “Thermodynamics of Flow and Biological Organization,” Zygon 6 (1971): 99–125.
  4. . I. Prigogine, Introduction to Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1955); I. Prigogine, G. Nicolis, and A. Babloyantz, “Thermodynamics of Evolution,” Physics Today (November 1972) (pt. 1), (December 1972) (pt. 2); P. Glansdorff and I. Prigogine, Thermodynamic Theory of Structure, Stability and Fluctuations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1971); P. Morrison, “A Thermodynamic Characterization of Self‐Reproduction,” Review of Modern Physics 36 (1964): 517; H. Morowitz, Energy Flow in Biology (New York: Academic Press, 1968); idem, “The Physical Foundations of Prebiological Evolution,” in Biology and the Physical Sciences, ed. S. Devons (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969).
  5. . Bronowski (n. 3 above).
  6. . L.Onsager, “Reciprocal Relations in Irreversible Processes,” Physical Review  37 (1931): 405 (pt. 1), 38 (1931): 2265 (pt. 2).
  7. . I. Prigogine, “Étude thermodynamkjue des phénomenes irrevérsibles” (thesis, Liege, 1947); idem, Introduction to Thermodynamics (n. 4 above).
  8. . I. Gyarmati, Non‐Equilibrium Thermodynamics (New York: Springer‐Verlag, 1970).
  9. . Glansdorff and Prigogine (n. 4 above).
  10. . Prigogine et al. (n. 4 above).
  11. . A. I. Zotin, Thermodynamics of Developmental Biology (New York: S. Krager, 1972); see also R. J. Tykodi, Thermodynamics of Steady States (New York: Macmillan Co., 1967).
  12. . See B. Gal‐Or, “Statistical Mechanics, Fallacy and a New School of Thermodynamics,” in Modern Developments in Thermodynamics, ed. B. Gal‐Or (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974).
  13. . See. H. H. Dolloff, Heat Death and the Phoenix (Hicksville, N.Y.: Exposition Press, 1975).
  14. . Morowitz, Energy Flow (n. 4 above).
  15. . C. S. Smith, “Structural Hierarchy in Inorganic Systems,” in Whyte et al. (n. 3 above).
  16. . Jacques Monod, Chance and Necessity, trans. Austryn Wainhouse (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1971).
  17. . H. H. Pattee, “The Recognition of Heredity Order in Primitive Chemical Systems,” in The Origins of Prebiological Systems and Their Molecular Matrices, ed. S. W. Fox (New York: Academic Press, 1965).
  18. . Pattee, “The Recognition of Description and Function in Chemical Reaction Networks,” in Buvet and Ponnamperuma (n. 3 above).
  19. . Fox (n. 1 above).
  20. . Morowitz, Energy Flow, and “Physical Foundations,” in Devons (n. 4 above).
  21. . A. J.Lotka. The Law of Evolution as a Maximal Principle. Human Biology  17(1945): 167.
  22. . Glansdorff and Prigogine (n. 4 above), p. xxi.
  23. . Pattee, “Recognition of Description and Function,” in Buvet and Ponnamperuma (n. 3 above); S. Black, The Nature of Living Things (London: Martin Seeker & Warburg, 1972).
  24. . I.Prigogine and J. M.Wiame, “Biologie et thermodynamique des phenomenes irreversibles. Experimentia  2(1946): 451.
  25. . Zotin (n. 11 above).
  26. . A. Oparin, Genesis and Evolutionary Development of Life (New York: Academic Press, 1968); J. Keosian, “The Origin of Life Problem–a Brief Critique,” in Rohlfing and Oparin (n. 1 above); S. L. Miller and L. E. Orgel, The Origins of Life on Earth (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, Inc., 1974); S, W. Fox, “Self‐Assembly of the Protocell from a Self‐Ordered Polymer,” in Prebiotic and Biochemical Evolution, ed. A. P. Kimball and J. Ora (Amsterdam: North‐Holland, 1971); P. T. Mora, “The Folly of Probability,” in Fox (n. 17 above); J. D. Bernal, “Molecular Matrices for Living Systems,” ibid.
  27. . Fox, “Self‐Assembly of the Protocell,” in Kimball and Ora.
  28. . G.Mueller, “Organic Microspheres from the Precambrian of South‐West Africa. Nature  235(1972): 90.
  29. . L. Margulis, Origin ofEukaryotic Cells (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1970), and “The Microbes' Contribution to Evolution,” Biosystems 7 (1975): 266.
  30. . J. T. Bonner, On Development (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); C. Grobstein, The Strategy of Life (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1964).
  31. . Bonner.
  32. . Ernst Mayr, Populations, Species, and Evolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963).
  33. . Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species (1859; reprinted., New York: Philosophical Library, 1951); W. M. Wheeler, Essays in Philosophical Biology (New York: Russell &: Russell, 1939); J. D. Hamilton, “The Genetical Evolution of Social Behavior” (pts. 1 and 2), Journal of Theoretical Biology 8 (1964): 1–52; E. O. Wilson, The Insect Societies (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971) and Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975); R. L. Trivers and H. Hare, “Hap‐lodiploidy and the Evolution of the Social Insects,” Science 191 (1976): 249.
  34. . R. Mark, Memory and Nerve Cell Connections (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974); K. H. Pribram, “The Four R's of Remembering,” in On the Biology of Learning, ed. K. H. Pribram (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1969); idem, Languages of the Brain (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, Inc., 1971); B. F. Skinner, Beyond Freedom and Dignity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1971); John R. Platt, “The Skinnerian Revolution,” in Beyond the Punitive Society, ed. H. Wheeler (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1973).
  35. . C. H. Waddington, The Ethical Animal (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960); K. Krippendorf, “Some Principles of Information Storage and Retrieval in Society,” General Systems Yearbook 20 (1975): 15; Dunn (n. 3 above); Skinner (n. 34 above); Donald T. Campbell, “Variation and Selective Retention in Socio‐Cultural Evolution,” General Systems Yearbook 14 (1969): 69; Ralph Wendell Burhoe, “The Civilization of the Future: Ideals and Possibility,” Philosophy Forum 13 (1973): 149.
  36. . C. F. Hockett and R. Ascher, “The Human Revolution,” Current Anthropology 5 (1964): 1; W. M. F. Montagu, “Brains, Genes, Culture, Immaturity and Gestation,” in Culture: Man's Adaptive Dimension, ed. W. M. F. Montagu (London: Oxford University Press, 1968); E. Caspari, “Selective Forces in the Evolution of Man,” American Naturalist 97 (1963): 5.