Notes

1. . Erika Bourguignon, “Dreams and Altered States of Consciousness in Anthropological Research,” in Psychological Anthropology, ed. F. K. L. Hsu, 2d ed. (Homewood, III.: Dorsey Press, 1972), p. 418; idem, “Foreword,” in Trance, Herding, and Hallucination: Three Field Studies in Religious Experience, ed. Felicitas D. Goodman, Jeannette H. Henney, and Esther Pressel (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974), p. viii; George P. Murdock, Ethnographic Atlas: A Summary (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1967).
2. . Felicitas D. Goodman, Speaking in Tongues: A Cross‐cultural Study of Glossolalia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), p. 70.
3. . Barbara W. Lex, “Physiological Aspects of Ritual Trance,” Journal of Altered States of Consciousness 2 (1975): 109–22, and “The Neurobiology of Ritual Trance,” in The Spectrum of Ritual, ed. Charles D. Laughlin, Jr., Eugene G. d'Aquili, and John McManus (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979), pp. 117–51.
4. . Eliot D. Chapple and Carleton S. Coon, Principles of Anthropology (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1942); Eliot D. Chapple, Culture and Biological Man: Explorations in Behavioral Anthropology (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970).
5. . Anthony F. C. Wallace, “Mazeway Resynthesis: A Biocultural Theory of Religious Inspiration,” Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences 18 (1956): 626.38; idem, Religion: An Anthropological View (New York: Random House, 1966); idem, Culture and Personality, 2d ed. (New York: Random House, 1970); Mircea Eliade, “‘Cargo Cults’ and Cosmic Regeneration,” in Millennia1 Dreams in Action: Studies in Revolutionary Religious Movements, ed. Sylvia L. Thrupp (New York: Schocken Books, 1970); Weston La Barre, “Materials for a History of Studies of Crisis Cults: A Bibliographic Essay,” Current Anthropology 12 (1971): 3–44; idem, The Ghost Dance: The Origins of Religion (New York: Delta Books, 1972).
6. . Anthony F. C. Wallace, “Revitalization Movements,” American Anthropologist 58 (1956): 264–81; idem, Religion; idem, Culture. Here 1 do not attempt to summarize the vast literature examining messianic movements (Bernard L. Barber, “Acculturation and Messianic Movements,” American Sociological Review 6 [1941]: 663–69), nativistic movements (Ralph Linton, “Nativistic Movements,” American Anthropologist 45 [1943]: 230–40), revitalization movements (Wallace, “Mazeway Resynthesis,”“Revitalization Movements,” Religion, and Culture), millenarian movements (Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millenium [New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961]; Thrupp [n. 5 above]), charismatic movements (Kenelm Burridge, Mambu [London: Methuen, 1960]), cargo cults (Peter Worsley, The Trumpet Shall Sound [New York: Schocken Books, 1968]), crisis cults (La Barre, “Materials” [n. 5 above]), and related processes as well as the discussion of overlapping phenomena in the broad range of ecstatic religious behaviors (Wallace, “Mazeway Resynthesis”; Eliade, “‘Cargo Cults’“[n. 5 above]; La Barre, Ghost Dance [n. 5 above]).The most recent reviews are found in La Barre's “Materials” and Ralph W. Nicholas's “Social and Political Movements,” in Annual Review of Anthropology, ed. Bernard J. Siegel, Alan R. Beak, and Stephen A. Tyler (Palo Alto, Calif.: Annual Reviews, Inc., 1973), pp. 63–84; these are exhaustive and can direct the reader to details of specific movements. In this paper I have elected to refer to “revitalization movements” because both the term and the model are sufficiently well known and nonpejorative to suit my present purposes.
7. . Wallace, “Mazeway Resynthesis,”“Revitalization Movements,” Religion, and Culture.
8. . Ronald Wallace, “The Biological Constant: Is It Time for a Reevaluation?” Human Organization 34 (1975): 321–25.
9. . Wallace, “Revitalization Movements,” p. 265.
10. . Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1970), pp. 239–45.
11. . Homer G. Barnett, Innovation: The Basis of Culture Change (New York: McGraw‐Hill Co., 1953), pp. 5–7.
12. . Homer G. Barnett, Indian Shaken: A Messianic Cult of the Pacific Northwest (Car‐bondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1957), pp. 31–34.
13. . Note, however, the forty days and forty nights of Jesus' privation. In such instances onset appears deliberately induced rather than spontaneous, although the outcome appears equally dramatic.
14. . Ward H. Goodenough, Cooperation in Change (New York John Wiley & Sons, 1963). p. 293.
15. . Ibid. By implication major scientific syntheses occur within an astringently dispassionate framework.
16. . Wallace, “Mazeway Resynthesis” (n. 5 above), p. 637. For James Mooney (The Ghost‐Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 2890 [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Phoenix Books, 1965]) the most satisfactory explanation of‐ the source of Wovoka's revelations stemmed from that prophet's conjoint illness, delirium, and fixed attention, while the visions avidly sought and experienced by Ghost Dance adherents were readily explicable as the results of an observable, ritualized “hypnotic process.” In a similar vein Francis Edgar Williams's report (“The Vailala Madness” [1923], in The Vailala Madness and Other Essays, ed. Erik Schwimmer [London: C. Hurst, 1976]) includes a section specifically describing the “nervous and physical symptoms” which overtook people enthusiastically caught up in the Vailala madness, in addition to several subjective statements about the extraordinary psychological sensations that were elicited from those participants known as “head‐he‐go‐round men.”
17. . C. S. Sherrington, The Integrative Action of the Nervous System (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1906); Walter B. Cannon, Bodily Changes In Pain, Hunger, Fear, and Rugr: Ail Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1915); Stuart J. Dimond, The Double Brain (Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1972); Michael S. Gazzaniga, The Bisected Brain (New York: Appleton‐Century‐Crofts, 1970).
18. . Ernst Gellhorn, “Further Studies on the Physiology and Pathophysiology of the Tuning of the Central Nervous System.” Psychosomatics, 10 (1969): 94.
19. . LaverneC. Johnson, “A Psychophysiology for All States,” Psychophysiology  6 (1970): 501–16.
20. . Stanley Schacter. “The Interaction of Cognitive and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State,” in Anxiety and Behavior, ed. C. D. Spielberger (New York: Academic Press, 1966), p. 197.
21. . Kenneth Gaarder, “Control of. States of Consciousness,” Archives of General Psychiatry 25 (1971): 429–41. Unfortunately Gaarder's model does not acknowledge the differentiated functions of the two cerebral hemispheres, although the less inclusive model employed by Roland Fischer (“Reply from Dr. Fischer,” R. M. Bucke Memorial Society Newsletter‐Review 5 [Fall 1972]: 42–45) does. A synthesis of these two models would be exceedingly complex and difficult to render in two‐dimensional form. Eugene G. d'Aquili's analysis of the differential functions of the cerebral hemispheres (“Structural Transformations: A Biogenetic Structural Analysis” [paper presented at the 74th annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, San Francisco, California, 1975]) permits one to infer a topography of cultural distortion, a metaphorical mental landscape that is reshaped dramatically through mazeway resynthesis. However, none of these models accounts for either neurochemical variability or symbolic interpretations of stimuli.
22. . Bourguignon (n. 1 above); Goodman (n. 2 above); Ernst Gellhorn and William F. Kiely, “Mystical States of Consciousness: Neurophysiological Aspects,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 154 (1972): 399–405; Lex (n. 3 above).
23. . Chapple and Coon (n. 4 above).
24. . For the purpose of simplification afferent and efferent nerves in the autonomic nervous system are not discussed here. Details are available in Raymond C. Truex and Malcolm B. Carpenter, Human Neuroanatomy, 6th ed. (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1969), chap. 11.
25. . Chapple and Coon; Chapple (n. 4 above); Gellhorn and Kiely; Lex.
26. . Francis Lueke I, Introduction to Physiological Psychology (Saint Louis: C. V. Mosby, 1972).
27. . Ibid.;WilliamF. Kiely, “From the Symbolic Stimulus to the Pathophysiological Response,” International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine  5 (1974): 517–29.
28. . Ernst Gellhorn and G. N. Loofbourrow, Emotions and Emotional Disorders: A Neurophysiological Study (New York: Harper & Row, 1963).
29. . Ibid.
30. . Cannon (n. 17 above).
31. . Chapple and Coon (n. 4 above); Chapple (n. 4 above).
32. . MarionA. Wengeret al., “Autonomic Response Specificity,” Psychosomatic Medicine  23 (1961): 185–93.
33. . Marion A. Wenger and Thomas D. Cullen, “Studies of Autonomic Balance in Children and Adults,” in Handbook of Psychophysiology, ed. Norman S. Greenfield and Richard A. Sternbach (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1972), pp. 535–70; John J. Honigmann, Personality in Culture (New York: Harper & Row, 1967); Eliot D. Chapple, “The Standard Experimental (Stress) Interview as Used in Interaction Chronograph Investigations,” Human Organization 12 (1953): 23–32; idem (n. 4 above).
34. . P. Bergman and S. K. Escalona, “Unusual Sensitivities in Very Young Children,” in Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, ed. W. Hoffer, 33 vols. (New York: International Universities Press, 1949), 3–4:333–52; Lois B. Murphy, The Widening World of Childhood (New York Free Press, 1962); W. H. Bridger and B. Birns, “Neonates’ Behavioral and Autonomic Response to Stress During Soothing,” in Recent Advances in Biological Psychiatry, ed. J. Wortis, 14 vols. (New York: Plenum Press, 1963), 5:1–6; Stephen G. Vandenberg, “Hereditary Factors in Psychological Variables in Man, with Special Emphasis on Cognition,” in Genetic Diversity and Human Behavior, ed. J. N. Spuhler (New York: Wenner‐Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 1967), pp. 99–133; Hanuš Papoušek, “Genetics and Child Development,” in ibid., pp. 171–85.
35. . Wenger and Cullen.
36. . D. G. Freedman and Nina Chinn Freedman, “Behavioral Differences between Chinese‐American and European‐American Newborns,” Nature 224 (1969): 1227.
37. . Elizabeth Duffy, “Activation,” in Greenfield and Sternbach (n. 33 above), pp. 577–622; Bernard Engel, “Response Specificity,” in ibid., pp. 571–76; Wenger and Cullen (n. 33 above).
38. . Jan Bruell, “Heritability of Emotional Behavior,” in Physiological Correlates of Emotion, ed. Perry Black (New York: Academic Press, 1970), pp. 270–86.
39. . John L.Fuller, “Physiological and Population Aspects of Behavior Genetics,” American Zoologist  4 (1964): 101–9.
40. . Ibid.; James S. Thompson and Margaret W. Thompson, Genetics in Medicine (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1973).
41. . Jan Bruell, “Behavioral Heterosis,” in Behaviora1‐Genetic Analysis, ed. Jerry Hirsch (New York: McGraw‐Hill Book Co., 1967), pp. 270–86; idem (n. 38 above); Jerry Hirsch, “Individual Differences in Behavior and Their Genetic Roots,” in Roots of Behavior, ed. Ernest L. Bliss (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), pp. 3–23.
42. . Richard, C.Lewontin, “Race and Intelligence,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists  26 (March 1974): 2–8.
43. . Ernst Gellhorn, Autonomic Imbalance and the Hypothalamus (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1957); idem, Principles of Autonomic‐Somatic Integration: Physiological Basis and Psychological and Clinical Implications (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1967); idem, “Attempt at a Synthesis: Contribution to a Theory of Emotion,” in Biological Foundations of Emotion: Research and Commentary, ed. Ernst Gellhorn (Glenview, III.: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1968); idem, “Central Nervous System Tuning and Its Implications for Neuropsychiatry,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 147 (1968): 148–62; idem, “Neurophysiological Basis of Homeostasis,” Confinia Neurologica 30 (1968): 217–38; idem (n. 18 above); idem, “The Emotions and the Ergotropic and Trophotropic Systems,” Psychologische Forschung 34 (1970): 48–94; Gellhorn and Kiely (n. 22 above); Ernst Gellhorn and William F. Kiely, “Autonomic Nervous System in Psychiatric Disorder,” in Biological Psychiatry, ed. Joseph Mendels (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1973), pp. 235–61; Gellhorn and Loofbourrow (n. 28 above); William F. Kiely, “Critique of Mystical States: A Reply, “Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 159 (1974): 196–97; idem (n. 27 above).
44. . Gellhorn and Kiely (n. 22 above); Kiely, “Critique”; Barbara W. Lex, “Voodoo Death: New Thoughts on an Old Explanation,” American Anthropologist 76 (1974): 818–23; idem (n. 3 above).
45. . W. R. Hess, On the Relations between Psychic and Vegetative Functions (Zurich: Schwabe, 1925).
46. . Gellhorn and Kiely (n. 22 above).
47. . Kiely (n. 27 above).
48. . Ibid.
49. . Gellhorn (n. 18 above), p. 94.
50. . Gellhorn and Loofbourrow (n. 28 above).
51. . Lex (n. 3 above).
52. . Gellhorn (n. 18 above); idem, “Emotions” (n. 43 above).
53. . Kiely (n. 27 above).
54. . Wallace, “Mazeway Resynthesis” (n. 5 above); idem, “Revitalization Movements” (n. 6 above); idem, Religion (n. 5 above); idem, Culture (n. 5 above), p. 193.
55. . Gellhorn and Kiely (n. 22 above), p. 403.
56. . Ibid.; Kiely, “Critique” (n. 43 above); Robert K. Wallace and Herbert Benson, “The Physiology of Meditation,” in Altered States of Awareness: Reading7 from Scientific American (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1972), pp. 125–31.
57. . Gellhorn and Kiely (n. 22 above), p. 403.
58. . Gellhorn and Kiely, “Autonomic Nervous System” (n. 43 above).
59. . Ibid.
60. . Edward F. Foulks (The Arctic Hysterias of the North Alaskan Eskimo [Washington, D.C.: American Anthropological Association, 1972], pp. 31–32) attributes psychophysiological disorders to stresses that result when culture contact renders ineffective traditional decision‐making and coping methods.
61. . Gellhorn and Kiely, “Autonomic Nervous System” (n. 43 above): Kiely (n. 27 above).
62. . Chapple and Coon (n. 4 above); Chapple (n. 4 above). Robert A. LeVine (Culture, Behavior, and Personality: An Introduction to the Comparative Study of Psychosocial Adaptation [Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1973], pp. 140–42) notes that psychophysiological palliatives, i.e., “forms of recreational behavior involving alcohol, narcotics, or strenuous exercise,” are employed to discharge tensions resulting from coerced conformity, whereas ideological palliatives are beliefs offering relief from suffering, such as religions doctrines promising a heavenly life after death. It easily can be seen that ritual trance is an expression of these two types in combination.
63. . Wallace, “Revitalization Movements” (n. 6 above); idem, Death and Rebirth (n. 10 above).
64. . Since this writing I have become aware of another, independent attempt to draw parallels between Gellhorn's model of stages of nervous‐system tuning with Wallace's ideal model of the revitalization process (Henry Beck and John Stampfl, “On the Use of Trend‐Surface Models in the Spatial Analysis of Political Crises and Biobehavioral Phenomena,” Social Science Working Paper 37 [School of Social Sciences, University of California, Irvine, 1973]).
65. . Gellhorn and Kiely (n. 22 above), p. 403.
66. . Ibid., p. 402.
67. . Marion A. Wenger and B. K. Bagchi, “Studies of Autonomic Functions in Practitioners of Yoga in India,” Behavioral Science 6 (1961): 312–23: N. Kleitman, Sleep and Wakefulness, 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), p. 107; Ernst L. Hartmann, The Functions of Sleep (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1973).
68. . Gellhorn, “Emotions” (n. 43 above), pp. 70–71.
69. . Chapple and Coon (n. 4 above); Chapple (n, 4 above); Wallace, “Mazeway Re‐synthesis” and Religion (n. 5 above); La Barre, “Materials” and Ghost Dance (n. 5 above); Lex (n. 3 above).
70. . On disorders being manifested by neural discharges see Gellhorn and Kiely, “Autonomic Nervous System” (n. 43 above). Of misled theorists a prime example is Edward F. Foulks who suggests (in his “A Sociobiologic Model of Schizophrenia” [manuscript, 1976]) that revitalization prophets so strongly resemble acute schizophrenics that the pool of schizophrenics. for whom the prevalence of this disorder is assumed to be strikingly constant in all societies, provides the genetic substrate from which arise potential prophets. However, prevalence and incidence rates of schizophrenia often combine the differential diagnosis of chronic and acute schizophrenia. The confounding effect of this practice is illustrated by the tendency of British‐trained psychiatrists to employ more precise nosological criteria than those utilized by their American‐trained counterparts.
71. . Gellhorn and Kiely, “Autonomic Nervous System.” These therapeutic measures include the use of drugs to stimulate or inhibit the nonsensitized or sensitized systems, respectively. In some disorders the trophotropic system is sensitized, e.g., in depression, so that manipulation of the ergotropic system is the target of therapy.
72. . Wallace, “Revitalization Movements” (n. 6 above).
73. . d'Aquili (n. 21 above).
74. . Hartmann (n. 67 above), pp. 145–50.
75. . Abraham H. Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being (New York: Litton Educational Publishing Co., 1968).
76. . Joseph E. Bogen, “The Other Side of the Brain (I: Dysgraphia and Dyscopia Following Cerebral Commisurotomy),” Bulletin of the Los Angeles Neurological Societies 34 (1969): 73–105; Robert Ornstein, The Psychology, of Consciousness (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1972).
77. . Marghanita Laski, Ecstasy (London: Cresset Press, 1961); Wallace, “Mazeway Resynthesis” (n. 5 above).
78. . Norman Geschwind, “Localization and Lateralization of Emotion” (paper read at McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, 1975).
79. . Roger Sperry, “A Modified Concept of Consciousness,” Psychological Review 76 (1969): 532–36; Bogen (n, 76 above); Joseph E. Bogen, “The Other Side of the Brain (11: An Appositional Mind),” Bulletin of the Los Angeles Neurological Societies 34 (1969): 135–62; Joseph E. Bogen and Glenda M. Bogen, “The Other Side of the Brain (111: The Corpus Callosum and Creativity),” ibid., pp. 191–220; Joseph E. Bogen et al., “The Other Side of the Brain (IV: The A/P Ratio),” ibid. 37 (1972): 49–61; A. H. Morgan, P. J. McDonald, and H. McDonald, “Differences in Bilateral Alpha Activity as a Function of Experimental Task,” Neuropsychologia 9 (1971): 459–69; David Galin and Robert Ornstein, “Lateral Specialization of a Cognitive Mode: An EEG Study,” Psychophysiology 9 (1972): 412–18; Dimond (n. 17 above); Gazzaniga (n. 17 above); Jerre Levy, “Lateral Specialization of the Human Brain,” in The Biology of Behavior, ed. John A. Kiger, Jr. (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 1972), pp. 159–80; Doreen Kimura, “The Asymmetry of the Human Brain,” Scientific American 299 (March 1973): 7G78; Gary G. Tunnel], Culture and Biology: Becoming Human (Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Co., 1973); Robert D. Nebes, “Hemispheric Specialization in Commissurotomized Man,” Psychological Bulletin 81 (1974): 1–14.
80. . Ornstein (n. 76 above).
81. . Bogen and Bogen (n. 79 above).
82. . Geschwind (n. 78 above).
83. . Ibid.; Maitland Baldwin, “Neurologic Syndromes and Hallucinations,” in Origin and Mechanisms of Hallucinations, ed. Wolfram Keup (New York: Plenum Press, 1970), pp. 3–12.
84. . Ornstein (n. 76 above).
85. . Norman, Geschwind, “The Apraxias: Neural Mechanisms of Disorders of Learned Movement,” American Scientist  63 (1975): 188–95.
86. . See my “Neurobiology of Ritual Trance” (n. 3 above). A close reading of John N. B. Hewitt (“The Term Haii‐Haii of the Iroquois Mourning and Condolence Songs,” American Anthropologist 11 [1898]: 268–87; “Orenda and a Definition of Religion,” ibid. 4, no. 3 [1902]: 33–46) and Raymond Firth (“The Analysis of Mana: An Empirical Approach,” in Cultures of the Pacific: Selected Readings, ed. Thomas G. Harding and Ben J. Wallace [New York: Free Press, 1970], pp. 316–33) on these topics, compared with Ornstein's and Bogen's description of right‐hemisphere functions, provides a basis for this hypothesis.
87. . Morgan, McDonald, and McDonald (n. 79 above).
88. . Some degree of ergotropic excitation is required in rituals because of the need to attend precisely to details (Chapple, Culture and Biological Man [n. 4 above]; Lex, “Neurobiology of Ritual Trance” [n. 3 above]).
89. . Norman Geschwind, “Disconnexion Syndromes in Animals and Man,” Bruin 88 (1966): 237–94, 585–644; Charles D. Laughlin, Jr., and Eugene G. d'Aquili, Biogenetic Structuralism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974), pp. 52, 58; d'Aquili (n. 21 above).
90. . Also these are the last areas of the brain to myelinate.
91. . William Sargant, The Battle for the Mind (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1959); Arnold M. Ludwig, “Altered States of Consciousness,” in Trance and Possession States, ed. Raymond Prince (Montreal: K. M. Bucke Memorial Society, 1968), pp. 69–95.
92. . Lauglilin and d'Aquili, pp. 52, 58; d'Aquili (n. 21 above).
93. . Roger Broughton, “Sleep and Clinical Pathological States,” in The Sleeping Bruin, ed. Michael H. Chase (Los Angeles: Brain Research Institute, 1972), pp. 364–65.
94. . Robert L. Williams and Ismet Karacan, “Clinical Disorders of Sleep,” in Sleep Research and Clinical Practice, ed. Gene Usdin (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1973), pp. 25–57.
95. . Gellhorn and Kiely, “Autonomic Nervous System” (n. 43 above), p. 244.
96. . Broughton; Gellhorn and Kiely, “Mystical States of Consciousness” (n. 22 above) and “Autonomic Nervous System.”
97. . Gellhorn, “Emotions” (n. 43 above).
98. . Ian Oswald, Sleeping and Waking: Physiology and Psychology (Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Co., 1962).
99. .Ibid.
100. . Ibid.
101. . Cf. Anthony F. C. Wallace, “The Trip,” in Psychedelic Drugs, ed. Richard E. Hicks and Paul Jay Fink (New York: Grune & Stratton, 1969), pp. 151–56.
102. . Although the experiences of scientists and prophets can be seen to overlap, the segregation in Western thought of emotion from reason until recently has precluded the attribution of scientific insights to supernatural intervention, and scientific explanations of causality scarcely have provided penetrating analyses of religious experiences (Lawrence Le Shan, “The Medium, the Mystic, and the Physicist: Toward a General Theory of the Paranormal [New York: Viking Press, 1974]). Yet descriptions of the insights of creative scientists, also involving reconfiguration of problematic systems, similarly point to some form of trophotropic activation. E.g., Arthur Koestler (The Act of Creation [London: Hutchinson, 1964]) reports that scientists, while fixedly gazing at the dancing flames of a fire or in a “dreamlike reverie,” have had such insights manifest themselves during repetitious physical exercise. Subsequently both the scientist and the prophet ascribe their insights to antecedent events, but each employs a different sort of belief system in formulating an explanation of the event. The form taken may derive partially from the distinctive patterns of hemisphere alternations characteristic of science and of religion. In other words, innovation in each domain requires simultaneous excitation in both hemispheres, or at least intervals of right‐hemisphere dominance or rapid alternation. ‘The explanatory process in either case nonetheless requires verbal expression via the left hemisphere. Although Goodenough (n. 14 above) has suggested that the emotionally evocative processes involved in resolving social problems are more likely to be designated as “religious” and thus find more elaboration in nonverbal (right‐hemisphere) expressive modes and that the “logic” of science requires sequential communication forms (rendered by the left), this is not to suggest that creativity in either domain is substantially different. The scientist's “Eureka!” upon synthesis may derive from exactly the same sorts of processes and experiences as religious inspiration (Stanley West, “Creativity, Altered States of Awareness, and Artificial Intelligence,” Journal of Altered States of Consciousness 2 [1975]: 219–30). It appears most likely that neither the scientist's nor the prophet's innovations occur in a social vacuum; in order that their ideas might be adopted by others each must express his insights in a manner comprehensible and acceptable to an audience.
103. . Wallace, “Revitalization Movements” (n. 6 above), pp. 270–71.
104. . Chapple (n. 4 above), pp. 90, 266.
105. . Gellhorn and Loofbourrow (n. 28 above); Gellhorn and Kiely, “Autonomic Nervous System” (n. 43 above).
106. . Geschwind (nn. 85 and 78 above).
107. . John Lofland (Doomsday Cult: A Study of Conversion, Proselytization, and Maintenance of Faith [Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, Inc., 1966], pp. 7–8) provides a model of the conversion process that not only emphasizes the importance of stress on potential converts but also intersects well with Wallace's model of revitalization. According to Lofland in order for full conversion to take place people must “experience enduring, acutely felt tensions”; perceive these “within a religious, problem‐solving perspective”; identify themselves as “religious seekers”; discover the movement “at a turning point” in their lives; form or draw upon “an affective bond to adherents”; limit or “neutralize” interaction with persons outside of the movement; and, through “exposure to intensive interaction” with fellow adherents, serve as “deployable agents” of the movement's message. Loflands model also fits well with Chapple's observations about the impact of interaction on the emotional status of participants.
108. . Chapple and Coon (n. 4 above), p. 401.
109. . David Aberle, “A Note on Relative Deprivation as Applied to Millenarian and Other Cult Movements,” in Thrupp (n. 5 above), pp. 20S14; La Barre, “Materials” and Ghost Dance (n. 5 above).
110. . Chapple (n. 4 above). In the face of subjugation or prejudice the attractiveness to women of participation in “cults” is comprehensible in this light as a mode of restoring emotional equilibrium rather than as the product of some ill‐defined, innately feminine proclivity for religiosity (I. M. Lewis, Ecstatic Religion: An Anthropological Study of Spirit Possession and Shamanism [Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1971]).
111. . Chapple and Coon (n. 4 above), p. 401; Chapple (n. 4 above), p. 302.
112. . Wallace (n. 10 above).
113. . Here one might argue that the popularity of “neo‐Hindu” movements, such as the Divine Light Mission, transcendental meditation, or Krishna consciousness, among middle‐class American youths stems from perceptions of adult resistance to the “counterculture” of the 1960s.
114. . See n. 4 above.
115. . Williams (n. 16 above), pp. 1–14, Colonial administrators, Indian agents, and missionaries all have expressed their dismay at the rapid spread and institutionalization of trance behavior among adherents of revitalization movements. In his report on the Vailala madness, e.g., Williams noted that persons called “head‐he‐go‐round men” could be found manifesting trance behavior in almost all villages in the territory surveyed. Because the subjective sensations described to him by participants were said to arise in their abdomens and mount to their heads, these people tried to encourage or hasten the experience by Fanning their midsections, whirling, and hyperventilating. Williams did not suppress his personal shock at these behaviors and wrote at great length about the need to reinstitute the traditional ceremonies in their stead.
116. . Chapple (n. 4 above).
117. . Ibid., pp. 292–95.
118. . The process of hysteresis is such that the “history” of prior effects exerts modifications on a system to the extent that the original state is never replicated. See also Gellhorn and Loofbourrow (n. 28 above), p. 297.
119. . Nicholas (11. 6 above).
120. . The message delivered by John Slocum also proscribed tobacco and horse racing, while Handsome Lake's good message enjoined the Iroquois to cease practicing abortion, to treat the elderly and the young with compassion, and to adopt orphans. The emotional impact of both the practices and their proscriptions or prescriptions should be apparent.
121. . Williams (n. 16 above); Margaret Mead, New Lives for Old (New York: Mentor Books, 1956).
122. . See n. 3 above.
123. . Goodman (n. 2 above), pp. 74, 84–85.
124. . Edmund R. Leach, “Ritualization in Man in Relation to Conceptual and Social Development,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 251 (1966): 403–8: Chapple (n. 4 above); Lex (n. 3 above).
125. . Felicitas D. Goodman, “Disturbances in the Apostolic Church,” in Goodman, Henney, and Pressel (n. 1 above), pp. 227–364. Goodman had the extremely good fortune to make field observations of a localized Pentecostal “upheaval” in various stages of development. Among her data are descriptions of the physical means employed in order to sustain or attempt to regain trance.
126. . Gellhorn and Kiely (n. 22 above).
127. . Wallace, “Mazeway Resynthesis” (n. 5 above), “Revitalization Movements” (n. 6 above), Religion (n. 5 above), and Culture (n. 5 above); La Barre, “Materials” and Ghost Dance (n. 5 above); Aberle (n. 109 above).
128. . Aberle.
129. . Goodman (n. 125 above), pp. 362–63.
130. . Ibid., p. 351.
131. . Even extreme asceticism can be viewed as a route to ecstatic experience.