Notes

  1. . Konrad Z. Lorenz, “Innate Bases of Learning,” in On the Biology of learning, ed. Karl H. Pribram (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1969). The same ideas are elaborated further in Lorenz's Behind the Mirror (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977).
  2. . Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species (reprint ed., New York: Washington Square Press, 1963).
  3. . Lorenz; Donald T. Campbell, “Evolutionary Epistemology,” in The Philosophy of Karl Popper, ed. P. A. Schilpp (La Salle, Ill.: Open Court Publishing Co., 1974). In theoretical papers I have reviewed additional literature and have discussed the problem of organization as it concerns the brain: “A Neural Systems Theory of Schizophrenia and Tardive Dyskensia,” Behavioral Science 21 (1976): 274–88; “How Can So Little Brain Hold So Much Knowledge? Applicability of the Principle of Natural Selection to Mental Processes, “Psychological Record 2 (1977): 393‐415; “Does the Brain Activity Maintain Itself?” (with B. Malamut), Biosystems 9 (1977): 257‐68; “The Logic of the Lesion Experiment and its Role in the Neural Sciences” in Recovery from Brain Damage: Research and Theory, ed. S. Finger (New York: Plenum Publishing Corp., 1978).
  4. . S. L. Washburn and F. C. Howell, cited in J. S Bruner's “The Course of Cognitive Growth,” American Psychologist 19 (1964): 1–15; J. Buettner‐Janusch, Origins of Man (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1966), pp. 145, 349.
  5. . “Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech,” ed. S. R. Harnad, H. D. Stelklis, and J. Lancaster, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280 (1976); H. J. Jerison, Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence (New York: Academic Press, 1973), pp. 420–32.
  6. . Gregory Bateson, “The Role of Somatic Change in Evolution,” in Step to an Ecology of Mind (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co., 1972); Campbell (n. 3 above); Garrett Hardin, “Genetic Consequences of Cultural Decisions in the Realm of Population,” Social Biology 19 (1972): 350–61; Ernst Mayr, “The Baldwin Effect,” in Animal Species and Evolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963), pp. 610–12; C. H. Waddington, The Ethical Animal (London: Allen & Unwin, 1960).
  7. . Waddington.
  8. . Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975), chap. 5, pp. 106–29.
  9. . Ibid.
  10. . R.Trivers, “The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism,” Quarterly Review of Biology  46 (1971): 35–57.
  11. . Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976).
  12. . Donald T. Campbell, “On the Genetics of Altruism and the Counter‐Hedonic Components in Human Culture,” Journal of Social Issues 28 (1972): 21–37; idem, “On the Conflicts between Biological and Social Evolution and Between Psychology and Moral Tradition,” American Psychologist 30 (1975): 1103–26 (reprinted in Zygon 11 [September 19761: 167–208); Dawkins.
  13. . Ralph Wendell Burhoe, “The Human Prospect and the ‘Lord of History,” Zygon 10 (September 1975): 299–375; idem, “The Source of Civilization in the Natural Selection of Coadapted Information in Genes and Culture,” ibid. 11 (September 1976): 263–303; Robert Boyd and Peter J. Richerson, “A Simple Dual Inheritance Model of the Conflict between Social and Biological Evolution,” ibid., pp. 254–62; Peter J. Richerson and Robert Boyd, “A Dual Inheritance Model of the Human Evolutionary Process: Basic Postulates and a Simple Model [I],” Journal of Social and Biological Structures 1 (1978): 127–54; idem, “A Dual Inheritance Theory of the Human Evolutionary Process: Costly Culture and the Genetic Control of Cultural Fitness [II]” (manuscript, June 1977).
  14. . Richerson and Boyd.
  15. . William H. McNeil, A World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967).
  16. . These comments (and those surrounding n. 32) are strongly reminiscent of the parable of the sower (Luke 8:I). While my arguments apply most clearly to instances of knowledge that are useful to relatively small subgroups (analogy with kin selection), it is intriguing to consider possible extensions to the issue of universal sharing.
  17. . D. R. Heise, Personality: Biosocial Bases (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1973); J. J. Braun and D. E. Linder, Psychology Today: An Introduction, 4th ed. (New York: Random House, 1979), chaps. 7, 10, 20; C. Holden, “Identical Twins Reared Apart,” Science 207 (1980): 1323–28.
  18. . I. Eibl‐Eibesfeldt, Ethology: The Biology of Behavior, 2d ed. (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1975); Wilson (n. 8 above); Desmond Morris, The Naked Ape (New York: McGraw‐Hill Book Co., 1967).
  19. . Robert L. Heilbroner, as quoted by Burhoe, “Human Prospect” (n. 13 above); J. Trumbull, M'Fingal: An Epic Poem (1782; reprint ed., New York: American Book Exchange, 1881), canto 2, p. 54.
  20. . Wilson (n. 8 above); Dawkins (n. 11 above); Campbell (n. 12 above); Richerson and Boyd (n. 13 above); Burhoe, “Human Prospect.”
  21. . Konrad Z. Lorenz, On Aggression (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966).
  22. . Ernst Mayr, Population, Species, and Evolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970), p. 43.
  23. . Hardin (n. 6 above).
  24. . Richerson and Boyd (n. 13 above).
  25. . Eibl‐Eibesfeldt (n. 18 above).
  26. . Donald T. Campbell, “Unjustified Variation and Selective Retention in Scientific Discovery,” in Studies in the Philosophy of Biology, ed. F. J. Ayala and T. Dobzhansky (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974).
  27. . Eibl‐Eibesfeldt; J. L. Phillips, Jr., The Origins of Intellect: Piaget's Theory, 2d ed. (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1975).
  28. . M. Gardner, The Ambidextrous Universe (New York: Basic Books, 1964), chap. 22.
  29. . Campbell, “On the Conflicts” (n. 12 above). See also Edward O. Wilson's On Human Nature (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), chap. 8, for a discussion of religion that emphasizes restriction of individualistic goals and subordination to the group.
  30. . N. Tinbergen, Curious Naturalists (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., Anchor Rooks, 1958).
  31. . See my “Selection Processes in Living Systems: Role in Cognitive Construction and Recovery from Brain Damage,” Behavioral Science  19 (1974): 149–65.
  32. . I thank Donald T. Campbell for suggesting this implication.
  33. . A. Montagu, The Nature of Human Aggression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976). In my opinion Montagu seriously overstates the case; see my review of his book in Contemporary Psychology 22 (1977): 109–11.
  34. . Waddington (n. 6 above), chap. 5.
  35. . Campbell, “On the Conflicts” (n. 12 above).